Roman Army - Recruitment, Legions, Siege Warfare More

The Roman army (exercitus) did not start out as the superlative fighting machine that came to dominate Europe to the Rhine, parts of Asia, and Africa. It began like the part-time Greek army, with farmers returning to their fields after a quick summer campaign. Then it changed into a professional organization with long terms of service far from home. The Roman general and 7-time consul Marius is considered responsible for the change of the Roman army into its professional form. He gave the poorest classes in Rome the opportunity to be career military, gave land to veterans, and changed the composition of the legion. Recruitment of Soldiers for the Roman Army The Roman army changed over time. The consuls had the power to recruit troops, but in the last years of the Republic, provincial governors were replacing troops without the approval of the consuls. This led to legionaries loyal to their generals rather than Rome. Before Marius, recruitment was limited to citizens enrolled in the top 5 Roman classes.  By the end of the Social War (87 B.C.) most of the free men in Italy were entitled to enlist and by the reign of Caracalla or Marcus Aurelius, it was extended to the entire Roman world. From Marius on there were between 5000 and 6200 in the legions. Legion Under Augustus The Roman army under Augustus consisted of 25 legions (according to Tacitus). Each legion consisted of about 6000 men and a large number of auxiliaries. Augustus increased the time of service from 6 to 20 years for legionaries. Auxiliaries (non-citizen natives) enlisted for 25 years. A legatus, supported by 6 military tribunes, led a legion, composed of 10 cohorts. 6 centuries made a cohort. By the time of Augustus, a century had 80 men. The leader of the century was the centurion. The senior centurion was called the primus pilus. There were also about 300 cavalry attached to a legion. Contubernium of Soldiers in the Roman Army There was one leather sleeping tent to cover a group of 8 legionaries. This smallest military group was referred to as a contubernium and the 8 men were contubernales. Each contubernium had a mule to carry the tent and two support troops. 10 such groups made up a century. Every soldier carried 2 stakes and digging tools so they could set up camp each night. There would also be slaves associated with each cohort. Military historian Jonathan Roth estimated there were 2 calones or slaves associated with each contubernium. The Size and Organization of the Roman Imperial Legion, by Jonathan Roth; Historia: Zeitschrift fà ¼r Alte Geschichte, Vol. 43, No. 3 (3rd Qtr., 1994), pp. 346-362 Legion Names Legions were numbered. Additional names indicated the place where the troops were recruited, and the name gemella or gemina meant the troops came from the merger of two other legions. Roman Army Punishments One way to ensure discipline was the system of punishments. These could be corporal (flogging, barley rations instead of wheat), pecuniary, demotion, execution, decimation, and disbandment. Decimation meant one in 10 soldiers in a cohort was killed by the rest of the men in the cohort by clubbing or stoning (bastinado or fustuarium). Disbandment was probably used for mutiny by a legion. Siege Warfare The first great siege war was waged by Camillus against the Veii. It lasted so long he instituted pay for the soldiers for the first time. Julius Caesar writes about his armys sieges of towns in Gaul. Roman soldiers built a wall surrounding the people to prevent supplies from getting in or people from getting out. Sometimes Romans were able to cut off the water supply. Romans could use a ramming device to break a hole in the city walls. They also used catapults to hurl missiles inside. The Roman Soldier De Re Militari, written in the 4th century by Flavius Vegetius Renatus, includes a description of the qualifications of the Roman soldier: Let, therefore, the youth who is to be chosen for martial tasks have observant eyes, hold his head up, have a broad chest, muscular shoulders, strong arms, long fingers, not too extended a wait measure, lean hams, and calves and feet not distended with superfluous flesh but hard and knotted with muscles. Whenever you find these marks in the recruit, do not be troubled about his height [Marius had set up 510 in Roman measurement as the minimum height]. It is more useful for soldiers to be strong and brave than big. Roman soldiers had to march at an ordinary pace of 20 Roman miles in 5 summer hours and at a fast military pace of 24 Roman miles in 5 summer hours carrying a 70-pound backpack. The soldier swore an oath of loyalty and implicit obedience to his commander. In war, a soldier who violated or failed to carry out the generals order could be punished by death, even if the action had been advantageous to the army. Sources Polybius (c. 203-120 B.C.) on the Roman MilitaryTraining Soldiers for the Roman Legion, by S. E. Stout. The Classical Journal, Vol. 16, No. 7. (Apr., 1921), pp. 423-431.Josephus on the Roman ArmyThe Antiqua Legio of Vegetius, by H. M. D. Parker. The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 3/4. (Jul. - Oct., 1932), pp. 137-149.Roman Legionary Fortresses and the Cities of Modern Europe, by Thomas H. Watkins. Military Affairs, Vol. 47, No. 1. (Feb., 1983), pp. 15-25.Roman Strategy and Tactics from 509 to 202 B. C., by K. W. Meiklejohn. Greece Rome, Vol. 7, No. 21. (May, 1938), pp. 170-178.

A Doll s House Individual Freedom Of Nora - 2227 Words

A Doll’s House: Individual freedom of Nora Individual freedom is a fundamental theme of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. Through the character of Nora Ibsen shows the necessity of individual freedom. Without it one can’t flourish oneself and establish oneself as equal partner with other (Nora – Helmer relationship). The protagonist, Nora always wants to be an independent person. Though she got her success, she paid a good price for herself liberty. The present paper investigates and discusses how Nora led her life before achieving her self-liberty and her passion for individual freedom. Life of Nora before her revolution: Actually Nora is literally trapped in Torvald’s family. She hasn’t been happy in her marriage, living as a â€Å"doll-wife† for Torvald. They never have any serious conversations. As Helmer’s wife, she is expected to obey his wishes. Even she suppresses her desire to please him. Helmer forbids her to have macaroons though this conflicts with her freedom. Helmer wants to keep her wife attractive. She had to obey Helmer which took place during the fancy dress party. She wants to stay at the party and enjoys herself but Helmer forces her to go back home early after tarantella dance. Actually Helmer’s motive was to sex with her. Thus he controls her life. When Nora refused, he reacted with the word won’t! won’t! He reminds her duty as a wife. The repetition of the word â€Å"won’t† shows his anger. In this way she was treated by her husband. Helmer expects to be obeyedShow MoreRelatedGlaspell s Trifles And The Invisibility Of Women1490 Words   |  6 PagesInvisibility of Women Susan Glaspell’s play Trifles and Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House are plays that explore a number of important features of femininity and life as a woman. Trifles explores a number of thematic ideas surrounding a woman’s place and her propensity for violence. 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Immigration English Immersion Essay Example For Students

Immigration: English Immersion Essay The issue of immigration has been a hot topic in the United States for much of its history. Recently the point of conflict has risen over the issue of bilingual education in public schools. Many people have become opposed to this form of learning and propose a speedy immersion program. Others cling steadfastly to the norm of bilingual education proclaiming that immigrant children would be lost if thrown into mainstream classrooms. Still, some have found middle ground through what have been termed dual immersion programs. Although it is somewhat difficult and complicated to sort through the different perspectives it is necessary; what is decided on this issue will effect the education of thousands of children for years to come. English immersion has gotten rave reviews since it was first implemented in California several years ago, and it looks like Arizona is following suit with its passage of Proposition 203 this past November. But, what is English immersion, and why do its proponents claim it is superior to bilingual education or dual immersion programs? Unlike bilingual education programs that teach non-English speaking students mainly in their native tongue or dual immersion programs that teach in two languages for the benefit of all students (immigrant or native), English immersion programs focus on teaching English to immigrants for the majority of the day. The first year English immersion was implemented in California â€Å"teachers began teaching entirely in English, using Spanish only if a student had trouble understanding a concept or was emotionally distressed and needed comforting or counseling† (Chavez). Experts said this would not work and that â€Å"forcing immigrant children to learn English immediately would damage their self-esteem and make them fall behind their peers in other subject areas, maybe even push them to drop out of schoolâ€Å" (Chavez). By January of 1999, just six months after the program began, immigrant children appeared to be absorbing English at a astonishing pace (Sahagun). Sylvia Harris, a teacher in South Central stated, â€Å"’the kids are doing very well. We’re very happy campers’† (Sahagun). At this same time, some teachers worried that their children might simply be imitating them rather than thinking in English or that many were falling behind in their studies. Still other â€Å"teachers lament having to water down core subjects such as science and social studies for students who are just beginning to read and write in English† and â€Å"regretted having to teach their English learners at a slower pace than they would have liked† (Sahagun). One year after the programs implementation, in August 1999, test scores appeared to have soared for immigrant students; â€Å"scores of English learners rose 18 percent in reading, 21 percent in mathematics, 15 percent in language, 21 percent in spelling and 19 percent overall† (Geyer). By August of 2000, even more evidence showed the success of English immersion. Test scores continued to rise dramatically in districts that implemented the program in a speedy fashion, where areas test scores remained stagnant in districts that refused to put the program into practice (Chavez). Suni Fernandez, a second grade teacher in Oceanside, explained that thirteen of her eighteen students were rated fluent by the state LAS test, a feat that two years ago was limited to one (Barone). It would seem as if the apparent success of English immersion programs would silence proponents of bilingual and dual immersion education, but it has not. Those still in favor of bilingual education wonder if the immersion program was really the cause of immigrant success in English. An economist at the University of California San Diego states, â€Å"There have been so many changes in California in the last few years that it’s really hard to know what’s causing what† (Wildavsky). At the same time that English immersion programs were implemented, class sizes decreased and phonics-based reading instruction began (Wildavsky). In addition â€Å"test scores for all students were up in California this year as a new state accountability system has given schools a big incentive to boost results† (Wildavsky). .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 , .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .postImageUrl , .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 , .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754:hover , .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754:visited , .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754:active { border:0!important; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754:active , .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754 .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf90a1ba8fd45f94af466ab4fa78bb754:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Ambition and the Tragic Demise of Macbeth EssayAlso, the proponents of bilingual education point to a 1991, study conducted by a National Academy of Sciences research team headed by David Ramirez, which followed 2,000 Latino school children. Ramirez stated, â€Å"’It is a myth that if you want children to learn English, you give them nothing but English’† (Hornblower). Stephen Krashen explains, â€Å"Because we learn to read by readingthat is by making sense of what is on the pageit is easier to learn to read in a language we understand. Once we can read in one language, we can read in general. However, bilingual education programs will fail if they a re taught by unqualified instructors, if they are over-crowded, if they lack appropriate materials, or if they are filled with the wrong grouping of students (Hornblower). A study conducted by George Mason University that spanned thirteen years and ended in 1995, compared the performance of 42,000 non-English speaking students and found that â€Å"children who had six years of bilingual education in well-designed programs performed far better on standardized tests in the 11th grade† than those with only three years of bilingual education (Hornblower). Also, â€Å"children who are plunged into an English environment before they are fluent ‘are left out of the discussion in their mainstream classes’† (Hornblower). According to Virginia Collier, a professor at George Mason University, shortened teaching in bilingual education â€Å"show up in the long term when the academic going gets tough† (Hornblower). The topic of bilingual education would seem to have only two sides, pro and con, but that is not the case. Recently the idea of dual immersion programs have gained wide-spread recognition causing many schools to implement such programs. Dual immersion programs, which typically begin when a student enters first or second grade, provide balanced instruction in two languages. Classrooms are filled â€Å"with approximately 50% native English speakers and 50% native speakers of the non-English language. instruction takes place through both languages, with the non-English language being used at least 50% of the time† (Howard). The goal of dual immersion is to â€Å"promote high academic achievement, first and second language development, and cross-cultural understanding for all students† (Howard). These programs seem to be working; the George Mason study previously mentioned has found that the highest achievers are those who are in dual immersion programs (Hornblower). Mary A. Cunningham Elementary School in Milton, Massachusetts implemented a French dual immersion program in the 1980’s (Bennefield). Students at this school begin their education with two years of instruction taught entirely in French (Bennefield). After the second grade, students are taught partly in French and partly in English through high school (Bennefield). This tactic seems to have given these students an academic edge as â€Å"the school system now shines in state performance tests in subjects† (Bennefield). Another school, Key Elementary in Virginia, teaches its students in Spanish and English. Students are taught in English for language arts, social studies, and â€Å"specials† (i. e. art, music, etc. ) and in Spanish for math, science, and Spanish language arts (Balick). One parent believes that this experience will likely help her son â€Å"see the world in a much more inclusive way† and provide him with â€Å"understanding of multiculturalism and an ability to move in and out of cultures other than own† (Balick). Similarly, a district supervisor in Passaic, Nicolas Calamusa, states, â€Å"ur country as a whole is recognizing that it makes good business sense for people to be able to work and speak in multiple languages,† and dual immersion programs help to achieve this (Kraut). With so much evidence supporting all three sides, it is hard to know which program produces the most desirable results. Are English immersion programs really the best way to go? Or do they force non-English speaking students into mainstream classes too soon? Do bilingual education programs actually hinder students from learning English? Are dual immersion programs really the happy medium that they might seem? Are students really learning two languages? Or are these programs simply hindering students from learning other academic areas better? There are so many questions, and the evidence would have us believe that the answers are clear-cut. But, the issue is more complicated than that and consensus will be slow in coming.

Tampa Pharmacy and the Military Health Program Essay Example

Tampa Pharmacy and the Military Health Program Essay Fraud is a consistent concern in the federal investigations especially on the major pharmacies that tend to overprice its medicines. Compounded are the mostly defrauded medicines since the Medicare program covers them. Examples of compounded drugs include the topical creams which are used to reduce pain at a faster rate. Due to their effectiveness, we tend to find that majority of the pharmacists taking advantage and hiking their prices to an unreasonable price. A good example was demonstrated by Tampa Pharmacy which increased the price of the medicines so as to earn unreasonable profits. Tricare’s spending on compounded medications, which typically combine multiple generic pharmaceutical ingredients into creams or gels, soared a $1.6 billion in 2015 tripled the amount spend in 2014. In our case, it is crucial for us to understand that Tampa Pharmacy having overbilled military program caused a significant stir on matters of legal concern. By this, I mean that Tampa pharmacy, who’s the owner, goes by the name Reiner Gobea was charged with the guilt of charging the prices of pain creams excessively. According to the complaints raised by the military health program, these creams were overpriced by as much as $4,400 for popular pain creams when it was purchased by a Tricare patients, but charged just $45 for the same product by a regular customer buying it over the counter with out insurance. The impact of this fraud scheme violated the federal rules which prevent the pharmacists from charging military service members more than what they charge the general public (Leap, T. L., 2011). Charging high is considered as bribery and illegal business and hence the health system has a drafted a price schedule on how all medicines especially pain creams are supposed to be sold. We will write a custom essay sample on Tampa Pharmacy and the Military Health Program specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Tampa Pharmacy and the Military Health Program specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Tampa Pharmacy and the Military Health Program specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The significance of Tampa Pharmacy overbilling case on military health program is crucial in regards to business law considering that they are draining the Medicare for